Sultan ntawm lub Ottoman Empire thiab lub 99th Halif Abdul-Hamid II: biography, tsev neeg

Thaum pib ntawm lub XIX xyoo pua lub Ottoman Empire yog nyob rau hauv ib lub xeev ntawm kev kub ntxhov. Izvedonnaya kev tsov kev rog rov qab nyob rau hauv tag nrho cov respects, lub teb chaws yuav tsum tau ib tug kho dua. Tanzimat kho, uas tau nqa tawm los ntawm 1839, Abdul Medzhid kuv, tau cuam tshuam nws zoo. Tab sis nyob rau hauv lub '70s, thaum lub sij hawm lub reign ntawm Sultan Abdul Aziz, lawv tau tuaj mus rau tsis muaj nuj nqis. Lub xeev yog yuav luag tsis muaj nyiaj. Nqi Se oppressed ntseeg uprisings. Threatened kev cuam tshuam ntawm cov European powers. Ces Tshiab Ottomans, taws los ntawm Midhat Pasha, ua npau suav ntawm ib tug zoo dua yav tom ntej rau lub teb chaws, siv ob peb palace coups, raws li ib tug tshwm sim ntawm cov uas tuaj rau lub hwj chim, Abdul-Hamid II.

Tus txiv neej, leej twg paib nws kev cia siab hnyav intellectuals, kuj yog ib qho ntawm feem ntau cov brutal autocrats faj tim teb chaws, thiab nws reign twb hu ua "zulyum", uas txhais los ntawm Turkish txhais tau tias "kev tsim txom" los yog "tyranny".

Lub keeb neeg ntawm Abdul Hamid II

Abdul Hamid II tau yug los nyob rau hauv lub Cuaj Hli Ntuj 22, 1842. Nws niam nws txiv twb Sultan Abdul Majid kuv thiab nws plaub tus poj niam Tirimüjgan Sultan, uas muaj, raws li ib tug version, lub Armenian, nyob rau lwm yam - lub Circassian keeb kwm.

Lub neej yav tom ntej huab tais tau txais ib qho kev kawm zoo. Nws yog tshwj xeeb yog zoo dua lub npe hu ua tub rog affairs. Abdul-Hamid yog paub nyob rau hauv ntau yam lus, tau ib nrab rau cov paj huam thiab suab paj nruag. Nws tshwj xeeb tshaj yog hlub cov opera uas kov yeej lub neej yav tom ntej caliph thaum lub sij hawm nws mus nyob rau hauv teb chaws Europe. Rau lub Ottoman Empire xws kos duab yog ib yam dab tsi tsis paub thiab nawj, tab sis Abdul-Hamid tau ua hauj lwm nyuaj rau nws txoj kev loj hlob nyob rau hauv tsev. Nws txawm sau tau ib cov opera thiab muab tso rau nws nyob rau hauv Istanbul. Thaum lub yim hli ntuj 31, 1876, Abdul-Hamid tuaj mus rau lub rooj huas tias, tsis muaj leej twg yuav tau xav hais tias nws yuav los ua tus creator tsis tsuas yog ntawm daim duab tab sis kuj cov ntshav tsoom fwv, uas yuav tsum tau npaum li cas los pua pua txhiab tus lub neej.

Nkag mus rau lub zwm txwv "ntshav Sultan"

Nyob rau hauv cov xyoo, cov tshiab Ottomans tag nrho cov kev siv zog mus coj hais txog kev hloov thiab Constitution. Conservative Abdul-Aziz deposed nrog lawv koom tes rau Tej zaum 30, 1876, thiab ib tug ob peb hnub tom qab ntawd tua. Nyob rau hauv nws qhov chaw, lub kev cai zog muab Murat V, tus kwv tij ntawm Abdul-Hamid. Nws yog muab sau rau nws siab ntawm cov ua cim, sympathetic thiab kev kawm ntawv kho. Tab sis ntshav feuds, cia li-pom lub hwj chim thiab dej caw ua rau mob loj heev neej puas nyob rau hauv lub tshiab Sultan, ib tug pampered lub neej nyob rau hauv lub tsev cog khoom tej yam kev mob. Murat V yog tsis tau tswj lub teb chaws, thiab tseem ceeb tshaj, yuav tsis muab lub teb chaws ib tug Constitution.

Qhov teeb meem no nyob rau hauv lub State thiab sab nraum aggravated. Serbia thiab Montenegro tshaj tawm hais tias tsov rog rau lub teb chaws Ottoman, sim los tiv thaiv cov ntseeg ntawm Bosnia thiab Herzegovina, lub rebels tiv thaiv cov Turkish quab. Murat V twb tshaj tawm hais tias insane thiab lub hwj chim yog Abdul Hamid II ntawm, cog lus tshiab Ottomans ua raws li tag nrho cov lawv yuav tsum.

Zaj lus tshaj tawm ntawm cov thawj Turkish kevcai tswj

Thaum lub plawv, lub Caliph tsis yog ib tug supporter ntawm mas lub tswv yim. Tab sis openly qhia lawv txoj hauj lwm coj nws mus rau lub zwm txwv ntawm lub Turkish intelligentsia yog yus. Tus tshiab Ottoman sultan pib los mus ncua cov lus tshaj tawm txog cov kevcai tswj, xa mus rau nws txhaum. Cov Basic Law yog lossi reworked thiab zoo-tuned. Meanwhile, Russia tau cog noob rau hauv lub xaus ntawm kev kaj siab nrog Serbia thiab Montenegro, thiab nyob rau hauv kev koom tes nrog rau cov nyob sab Europe powers pib tsim Bulgaria tus autonomy project, Bosnia thiab Herzegovina.

Nyob rau hauv lub tam sim no tense teeb meem no, Midhat Pasha yog npaj txhij rau tej kev txi rau lub hom phiaj ntawm cov lus tshaj tawm ntawm cov kevcai tswj. Abdul-Hamid tau tsa lub tshiab lub taub hau ntawm lub Ottoman Grand Vizier thiab pom zoo mus rau luam tawm nws nyob rau hauv lub zwj ceeb ntawm kev ntxiv ib qho khoom los yam khoom. 113, raws li uas, cov sultan yuav ntiab tawm tej kev phem nyob rau hauv nws lub ntsej muag. Lub Constitution yog muab txoj kev ywj pheej thiab kev ruaj ntseg ntawm txhua tus neeg, tsis hais kev cai dab qhuas, tau tshaj tawm tias Hlis ntuj nqeg 23, 1876 nyob rau Istanbul lub rooj sib tham. Nyob rau hauv nws cov kev txiav txim siab, Abdul-Hamid ib ntus tuag tes tuag taw European kev tso ntseeg thiab muab khaws cia tseg zoo unlimited hwj chim.

Cov tua neeg pov tseg ntawm tus tshiab Ottomans

Tam sim ntawd tom qab lub Zaj lus tshaj tawm ntawm cov kevcai tswj ntawm lub caliph pib ua phem rau lub Txhab nyiaj thiab yuav ua kom paub cov kev tsuj ntawm lub nroog loj cov ntawv xov xwm. Cov kev nqis tes ua tau coj mus rau tsausmuag clashes nrog Midhat Pasha, uas tab tsom dissatisfaction nrog cov kev ua ub ntawm lub Sultan. Abdul-Hamid tsis quav ntsej li tawm tsam kom txog thaum tus neeg pej xeem vizier tsis tau sau ntawv rau nws ib tug bold tsab ntawv. Nyob rau hauv nws Midhat Pasha sib cav hais tias lub caliph nws tus kheej hinders txoj kev loj hlob ntawm lub xeev. Ottoman Sultan, outraged xws arrogance, kom tus raug ntes ntawm lub taub hau ntawm lub constitutionalists thiab xa lub nkoj "Izzedin" tus tauj ncov loj uas yuav tsum tau siv sij hawm Midhat Pasha nyob rau hauv tej txawv teb chaws qhov chaw nres nkoj uas lawv xaiv. Lub Caliph muaj ib txoj cai ua tsaug rau qhov sib ntxiv rau Art. 113 ntawm cov kevcai tswj ntawm lub Ottoman Empire.

ib tug ntau ntawm kev tsuj tiv thaiv cov liberals, tab sis lawv tsis tau tshwm sim los chim heev pej xeem twb nqa tawm nyob rau hauv lub tuaj lub hlis. Creators ntawm cov thawj cov kevcai tswj tsis tu txog chav kawm ntawv them nyiaj yug, yog li lawv zoo undertakings tau dawb do erased dag lawv Abdul-Hamid II.

Thaum pib ntawm lub era ntawm "zulyuma"

Lub Caliph npaj tsis muaj kevcai tswj kev mloog lus muaj, los sis tsis ua raws li cov European powers. Raws tu qauv, kos mus txog ntawm lawv sai tom qab lub Istanbul Conference, demanded ib tug kawg rau kev ua phem tawm tsam cov ntseeg nyob rau strike, Abdul Hamid II tsuas tsis quav ntsej li. Thiab Russia tshaj tawm hais tias tsov rog rau lub teb chaws Ottoman, uas pom tag nrho cov putrid thiab backwardness sultanatskogo tsoom fwv nyob rau hauv lub Plaub Hlis 1877. Nyob rau hauv lub peb hlis ntuj 1878, nws yog ib tug ua tiav yeej ntawm lub Ottoman Empire. Nyob rau hauv lub meantime, cov ntsiab ntawm cov tsov rog tau summed li nyob rau Berlin Congress, cov cunning Abdul-Hamid yaj parliament indefinitely, li no depriving lub constitutional rog.

Tsov rog coj cov faj tim teb chaws loj loj hwv losses. Los ntawm nyob rau hauv nws lub hwj huam mus tawm Bosnia thiab Herzegovina, Romania, thiab lwm yam moo. Lub xeev tau yuam ib tug lossis loj indemnity, thiab Abdul Hamid II ntawm lub kawg ntawm lub congress yog ua kom kho nyob rau hauv cov cheeb tsam nyob ntawm Armenians. Nws yuav zoo li uas cov ntseeg lub neej yog yuav tsum tau zoo, tab sis lub Sultan ntawm lub Ottoman Empire tau tsis tiav raws li tej lus cog tseg. Ntxiv mus, tom qab lub ignominious yeej nyob rau hauv tsov rog lub mas lub tswv yim thaum kawg crushed thiab lub teb chaws tuaj dub lub sij hawm, hu ua "zulyum".

Cov nyiaj txiag poob ntawm lub teb chaws

Abdul-Hamid yog kiag li seized lub hwj chim. Nws sim mus khaws cia rau hauv lub hwv kev ncaj ncees ntawm lub xeev los ntawm cov ideology ntawm Islamism. 99th Caliph yeeb ncuab kev txaus siab ntawm lub as, Circassian thiab Kurdish feudal lords, lub siab tshaj plaws Muslim kev cai dab qhuas cov thawj coj thiab ib tug loj bureaucracy. Lawv ua tau kav lub teb chaws. Uncomplaining chaw nres nkoj los ua ib tug qho khoom ua si nyob rau hauv lawv txhais tes. Txhab nyiaj Iwj ntawm cov nuj nqis ntawm txawv teb chaws cov nyiaj txais. Nqi loj hlob thiab neeg txawv teb chaws tso cai concession. Hwj chim dua tshaj tawm hais tias nws tus kheej tsis muaj nyiaj. Nqi faj tim teb chaws twb tsim "Department ntawm lub Ottoman pej xeem nuj nqis." Lub teb chaws no kiag li poob nyob rau hauv cov kev tswj ntawm lub thoob ntiaj teb nyiaj txiag thiab yeej los ntawm txawv teb chaws capital nyob rau hauv nws, uas cia li nyiag lub twb txom nyem. Tax oppression nyob rau hauv lub teb chaws tau nce ho. Muaj hwj chim loj poob mus rau hauv disrepair, ua ib tug semi-colony ntawm txawv teb chaws.

Paranoia thiab tyranny

Nyob rau hauv cov tshwm sim, lub sultan yog feem ntau ntshai ntawm txoj hmoo ntawm Abdul-Aziz thiab Murat V. ntshai ntawm tus tau deposition ntawm ib tug palace coup thiab mus rau hauv paranoia, uas yog raug kiag li txhua yam. Yıldız Palace, uas tsawm lub Caliph, tau sau nrog tiv thaiv.

Muaj koj tau ua hauj lwm incessantly rau lawv los ntawm lub Bureau, los tswj cov kev ua ub ntawm tag nrho cov tsoom fwv saib xyuas, thiab txoj hmoo ntawm ntau dua Sanov faj tim teb chaws. Tej tus me tshaj plaws uas tshwm sim los tu Abdul Hamid yuav raug nqi ib tug neeg tsis tau tsuas yog rau cov tsis txaus, tab sis kuj lub neej. Lub intelligentsia tau ua lub ntsiab yeeb ncuab ntawm lub Sultan, li ntawd, nws muaj kev koom txhawb kom ignorance. Tsis minister, taws lub department Ports, twb tsis muaj kev kawm ntawv. Vim hais tias ntawm nws tej zaum yuav kis rau unreliability, thiab yog li ntawd objectionable mus rau lub Sultan. Provincial ua hauj lwm thiab yuav tsis khav txog siab kev cai theem. Nyob rau hauv lawv lub voj voog reigned arbitrariness thiab kev noj nyiaj txiag. Abdul Hamid nws tus kheej nyiam tsis txhob tawm hauv lub palace. Qhov kos yog tsuas selyamlik. Nws lub koom haum, ib tug loj heev neeg soj xyuas network thiab tsim ib tug tub ceev xwm, uas tau ua nrov thoob lub ntiaj teb no. Nyob rau nws mus xav tsis thoob qhaub los ntawm cov pej xeem lub hnab tawv pojniam.

Neeg soj xyuas network thiab cov tub ceev xwm

Tsis muaj ib tus neeg nyob rau hauv lub teb chaws tsis muaj kev nyab xeeb. Cov neeg ntshai txawm lub ze tshaj cov txiv - cov poj niam, poj koob yawm txwv - cov me nyuam. denunciations thiab ua raws li lawv, arrests thiab deportations twb ntau. Feem ntau ib tug neeg cia li tua tsis mus sib hais. Cov thawj coj kev tshawb nrhiav cov neeg paub nyob rau hauv lub ntsej muag thiab thaum lawv tshwm sim nrhiav qhov chaw nkaum. Soj ntsuam tau ua thiab lub siab tshaj plaws ibyam. Sultan paub txog lawv kiag li txhua yam, xws li noj zaub mov zoo. Txawm lub feem ntau approximate mus rau lub Caliph neeg yuav tsis nyob rau hauv kev sib haum xeeb. Hauv lub tsev hais plaub camarilla dai oppressive cua ntawm kev ntshai thiab lub sijhawm twg los. Tug Txivneej Tshuaj Tebchaws twb nyob rau hauv txhua txhua ces kaum ntawm lub teb chaws. Nws emigrated los ntawm yuav luag tag nrho cov los ntawm UFW ntawm kho kom zoo.

kev censorship

Printing tau raug mus rau mob hnyav censorship. Cov nab npawb ntawm cov ntaub ntawv tau poob dramatically. Lo lus xws li "kev ywj pheej", "tyranny", "koob pheej ntawm lawv" raug xam tias yog seditious. Lawv siv yuav poob nws lub neej.

Banned phau ntawv twb Voltaire, Byron, Tolstoy, thiab txawm Shakespeare, nyob rau hauv particular raug xwm txheej "Hamlet", vim hais tias nws yog tus tua neeg ntawm tus huab tais. Turkish sau ntawv txawm sim nyob rau hauv nws tej hauj lwm nrog sib raug zoo thiab kev nom kev tswv tej teeb meem.

Universities ua tib zoo saib xyuas. Tej free-nipped nyob rau hauv lub paj. Lub keeb kwm ntawm Islam thiab cov Ottoman dynasty hloov cov tsoos lectures rau keeb kwm ntiaj teb.

Lub loj extermination ntawm Armenians

Sultan ntawm lub Ottoman Empire txhob txwm tshaj tawm tseb discord ntawm cov Muslim thiab Christian cov pejxeem. Txoj cai no yog tsim nyog. Heev ua rau cov neeg tsis muaj zog thiab distracted los ntawm lub ntsiab teeb meem. Tsis muaj ib tug nyob rau hauv lub xeev yuav tsis muab ib tug haum rebuff mus rau lub Caliph. Nws provoked ntxub ntawm cov haiv neeg, siv lub apparatus ntawm kev tshawb nrhiav thiab cov tub ceev xwm. Ces tus cavalry "Hamidiya Bazaar" yog tsim rau cov kev pab los ntawm lub Kurds. Sultan thugs ntshai cov pejxeem. Tshwj xeeb tshaj yog los ntawm lawv cov xav tias tsam lawv raug kev txom nyem los ntawm Armenians. Los ntawm 1894 mus 1896 tua txog 300 txhiab. Txiv neej.

Armenians nyob rau tib lub sij hawm them tribute mus rau lub Kurds thiab cov se ntawm cov teb chaws Ottoman. Powerless, nkees ntawm lub tyranny ntawm cov tub ceev xwm, cov neeg tau sim mus protest. Cov lus teb twb looted zos, strewn nrog corpses. Armenians burnt ciaj sia, mutilated thiab tua tag nrho lub zos. Piv txwv li, nyob rau hauv Erzurum tua neeg pov tseg coj ib feem thiab pab tub rog, thiab yooj yim Turkish pejxeem. Thiab nyob rau hauv ib tsab ntawv rau ib qho ntawm lub Ottoman tub rog, nyob rau hauv lub tsev neeg, hais tias tsis muaj ntawm cov Turks tsis raug mob, thiab tsis muaj Armenians tshuav ciaj sia.

Lub hauv paus chiv keeb ntawm tus txheem

Nyob rau hauv lub midst ntawm ntau xav tias tsam lawv, devastation thiab kev txom nyem sawv Turkish tub rog. Nws sultan drastic hloov tau ua. Lawv high-end kawm tub rog thiab tau txais ib qho kev kawm zoo. Yeej tseem zoo, Turkish tub rog tau ua qhov tseem enlightened neeg nyob rau hauv lub teb chaws Ottoman. Peev xwm nyob rau hauv tag nrho cov respects, lawv yuav tsis saib calmly ntawm dab tsi ua rau lawv lub teb chaws tus despotic Abdul Hamid lub 2nd hom. Ua ntej lawv ob lub qhov muag tau humiliated thiab devastated lub faj tim teb chaws, uas kav arbitrariness thiab tub sab tub nyiag, riots thiab looting; uas ua tau yog tus uas kav cov teb chaws Europe, noj tam sim ntawd qhov zoo tshaj plaws ntawm nws lub xeev.

Tsis muaj teeb meem ntau npaum li cas yuam kev Sultan mas xav nyob rau hauv lub minds ntawm tus tshiab intelligentsia, lawv tseem tau yug thiab tsim. Thiab nyob rau hauv 1889 muaj ib tug pub leejtwg pab pawg neeg ntawm cov hluas Turks, uas cim pib ntawm ib tug ntshav kam mus rau lub despotism ntawm Abdul-Hamid. Nyob rau hauv 1892, nws kawm ntawm qhov chaw nres nkoj. Cov menyuam kawm ntawv raug puas tau raug ntes, tab sis tom qab ib tug ob peb lub hlis Sultan tso lawv dim thiab txawm tso cai mus ntxiv nws kev tshawb fawb. Abdul-Hamid yeej tsis xav kom ua cua sov rau txog cov cua nyob rau hauv cov tsev kawm ntawv thiab tau theej lawv ua rau hluas zog tuaj Escapade. Ib tug revolutionary zog txuas ntxiv mus rau kis.

Hluas Turk kiv puag ncig

Rau kaum xyoo, ib tug tswv tsev ntawm lub Koom Haum Ntxhais Turk cov koom haum. Nyob rau hauv lub zos, leaflets, pamphlets, ntawv xov xwm, uas feem ntau Vajtswv thiaj tau ntuas Sultan tsoom fwv thiab nce nws overthrow. Anti-tsoom fwv sentiment hu ib tug kawg nkaus thaum nyob rau hauv 1905 muaj ib tug kiv puag ncig nyob rau hauv Russia, sai sai teb nyob rau hauv lub siab lub ntsws ntawm Turkish intellectuals.

Caliph poob so thiab siv ib tug sleepless hmo ntuj nyob rau hauv kev ntshai tias lub taug xaiv txog nws, tshwj xeeb tshaj yog cov mutiny ntawm Lavxias teb sab sailors rau lub battleship "Potemkin", imbued nyob rau hauv Istanbul. Nws txawm kom ib tug kev tshawb nrhiav nyob rau hauv lub Turkish tub rog ships nyob rau hauv thiaj li yuav paub qhov revolutionary ntsuj plig. Sultan Abdul Hamid II xav tias nws reign yog tuaj rau ib tug kawg. Thiab nyob rau hauv 1905, nws yog ib qho los yuav tsis.

Ob xyoos tom qab, ib tug congress ntawm lub Koom Haum Ntxhais Turk koom haum, thiab nws tau txiav txim siab los depose lub Sultan thiab tus txha kev los cov kevcai tswj. Nyob rau sab ntawm lub Koom Haum Ntxhais Turks ntawm Macedonia poob hauv cov pej xeem nws tus kheej sultan tus tub rog. Txawm li cas los, lub caliph deposed. Nws mus rau concessions, thiab tsab kevcai tswjfwm yog rov Zaj lus tshaj tawm ntawm Lub Xya hli ntuj 10, 1908.

End ntawm ib tug era "zulyuma"

Sultan ntawm lub Ottoman Empire ua tiav tag nrho yuav tsum tau ntawm lub Koom Haum Ntxhais Turks, tab sis nyiag wove ib zajlus tiv thaiv cov kevcai tswj. Keeb kwm twb rov qab, tsuas yog tus kawg nws yog txawv. Ua ke nrog nws tus tub Burhaneddin lawv sau cov nroog loj regiments adherents, sprinkling kub txoj cai thiab sab laug. Plaub Hlis Ntuj hmo ntuj nyob rau hauv 1909 lawv tau tsa ib ntxeev siab. Hluas Turks cov tub rog los ntawm tib lub tso kom muaj kab muaj kev raug ntes thiab ntau raug tua. Cov tub rog marched mus rau lub parliament tsev thiab demanded ministerial hloov. Abdul-Hamid tom qab sim los ua pov thawj hais tias yog tsis muab kev koom tes nyob rau hauv lub rebellion, tab sis yuav tsis muaj avail. Hluas Turk "Army kev txiav txim" Istanbul seized thiab nyob rau hauv lub palace ntawm lub Sultan. Surrounded los ntawm reproaches nws minions thiab tsev neeg, txiav tawm los ntawm lub ntiaj teb no, nws twb yuam kom surrender. Plaub Hlis Ntuj 27, 1909 hauv lub sultan twb overthrown thiab exiled Salonika. Yog li ntawd nws txo nws hwj xaus rau lub tyranny ntawm lub tsoom fwv, uas painstakingly tsim lub Abdul-Hamid. Tus poj niam mus nrog nws. Tab sis tsis yog txhua txhua, tiam sis tsuas yog tus tshaj plaws ncaj ncees.

Tsev Neeg 99th caliph

Family Life Abdul-Hamid yog raug ntawm lub Ottoman Sultan. Caliph sib yuav 13 lub sij hawm. Ntawm tag nrho cov uas nws xaiv tseg sawv daws yuav nws twb tshwj xeeb uas txuas mus rau ob: Myushfike thiab Salih. Nws yog lub npe hu hais tias lawv tau sab laug lub deposed sultan nyob rau hauv cov teeb meem thiab mus nrog nws mus rau hauv exile. Tsis yog txhua txhua poj niam nyob rau hauv lub Ottoman Sultan zoo li ntawd hloov zuj zuj kev sib raug zoo. Nrog Safinaz Nurefzun nws sib nrauj tsis tau thaum lub sij hawm nws reign, thiab nrog ib co ntawm nws cais Thessaloniki. Qub txeeg qub teg Caliph tos unenviable hmoo, tom qab nws tau deposed Abdul-Hamid. Cov me nyuam ntawm cov Sultan raug ntiab tawm nyob rau hauv 1924 los ntawm Qaib Cov Txwv. Nws tus kheej ib tug qub Caliph rov qab mus rau Istanbul ib tug ob peb xyoos tom qab exile thiab tuag muaj nyob rau hauv 1918.